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	Apollo-1:
	INTROMENU
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APOLLO 11 - The story
It was an epic drama played out in the heavens not by gods but by men, and for a moment ---
one brief glorious moment --- all the people of the world were as one as they watched with bated
breath and marvelled at Man's ingenuity, his courage, his thrusting ambition, and his
monstrous arrogance.
And when it was all over, Man's most daring dream had come true.  It was a triumph, opening
up new horizons in the immensity of Space, where there is no end to the new horizons, only a
bewildering infinity to challenge and to mock him.
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It had always been Man's destiny to ride the stars.  For to fix the beginning of the story of the
Conquest of the Moon would mean going back in time to the moment man first noticed that
white globe glowing in the night sky as though planted there as an eternal torment to his
curiosity.
                                    Man's desire to reach out and touch it remained only a frustrated dream until
                  Wednesday, July 16, 1969, when Apollo 11 roared up, up and away from
                                Launchpad 39A at Cape Kennedy and, after looping the Earth, headed for the
                                    Moon on Man's greatest voyage of discovery.
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"T-MINUS
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On board were Mankind's first two ambassadors to another world, and a third man --- their "taxi
driver" --- who, while they kept their appointment on the lunar surface, would drive round and
round waiting to pick them up for the return trip.
The first men on the Moon, Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Adrin, and the command pilot
Michael Collins, were The Quiet Americans.  For while their courage gripped the earth-bound,
and the world held its breath, they remained calm, cool, matter-of-fact, and unemotional,
saying little unless it was to communicate with Houston mission control about some
operation, some adjustment, some technical detail.  No one could begrudge them their
aloofness, their complete devotion to duty.  They were attempting what no man had attempted
before.
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In the eight years of American and Russian probes to the Moon, numerous unmanned spacecraft
had been sent crashing into the lunar surface.  Later more sophisticated spaceships and
soft-landed and dug into the lunar crust.
Photographs had been flashed back to Earth from spacecraft on the lunar surface or in orbit above
the Moon.  Man himself had flown round and round it, down and over it.  But he had never landed.
That was the one remaining challenge, and no one knew what hidden dangers lay on the mysterious
surface of Earth's closest neighbour.
On Saturday morning, Apollo 11 moved into the Moon's gravitational field and the crew prepared
for the make or break lunar orbit.  A reverse fire of the main engine was slowing their speed
                 
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sufficiently to enable the Moon's gravity to hold the craft in orbit.  Too long a firing would put it in
an orbit too low for Armstrong and Aldrin to seperate their spider-like lunar module and make the
descent to the Moon's surface the next day.  Too short a firing would not slow the spacecraft
enough to keep it in an orbit and Apollo 11 would head back to Earth --- either to skim off the
atmosphere like a stone on a pond and never come back, or plunge through too swiftly and burn
At 6:13pm British Time on Saturday evening the big test came as the spacecraft slid behind the
Moon and out of contact with mission control for the first time.  Thirty-five minutes later it
re-emerged, and the world knew that the first crucial phase had passed: the astronauts had fired
Apollo 11's main thrust engines for six minutes and two seconds behind the moon and the burn
     
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had been 'good'.  The ship had gone into an eliptical orbit 69 miles by 196 miles.  It was a
manoeuvre which had been accomplished by previous manned missions round the Moon.  But when
a split-second error means certain disaster, it could still hardly be regarded as 'routine'.
As Apollo 11 reappeared from behind the Moon, Armstrong gazed out of the window of the
spacecraft, describing the scarred, desolate landscape below, and picking out lunar landmarks.
                                        They had arrived: they were over the moon.  Early on Sunday afternoon,
                       during the tenth orbit, Armstrong and Aldrin transferred from the
                                                      command module --- code-named Columbia --- to the lunar module Eagle.
                                                      The climax of the mission was about to begin.
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The separation of Eagle and Columbia began on this side of the Moon, but the descent itself began
with a firing of the lunar module's motor after a separating orbit on the far side, out of touch with
mission control.
It was seven o'clock on a sunny Sunday evening in Britain, and the whole world was watching and
waiting.  At last Armstrong's calm voice broke the static-filled radio silence with an astronaut's
affirmative.  The first miracle had been performed.  All systems were 'go'.
From that moment, with the tension mounting second by second and with the minimum of
interruption from Earth or from the orbiting Columbia, the lunar module bore Armstrong and
Aldrin downwards, using its motor as a brake and slowly tilting until it was upright and ready for
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landing in the Sea of Tranquility.
On and down, past 'highgate' at 7,000 feet with the braking phase complete and the spacecraft
rotated so that its windows faced forward --- the point at which the final approach began.  Still
onward and down, but more slowly now, Armstrong and Aldrin checking, checking and re-checking
that all systems were still go.
Visual approach, but under automatic control, began at 500ft with the spacecraft still nosing
forward slowly.  At 250ft, with all forward motion stilled and the descent rate only 2.5ft a second,
the spacecraft seemed to pause and wait as Armstrong searched the ashen grey landscape for the
hidden flaws, the sudden rock, which could shatter the landing.  He did spot danger --- a crater 'the
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size of a football pitch' --- but with a hop to clear it Eagle dropped safely and so smoothly to the
surface.  There was a moment's silence, then the flat tones of Armstrong's voice: ''Contact light;
engine stopped ... the Eagle has landed.''
                                                           Man had arrived.  The dream had come true.  Science fiction had been
                                                           transformed  into science fact.  It was 9:18pm British Time of July 20,
                                            1969, and Man had made his first space landing.  It was a moment
                                                  even  more breathtaking than the  subsequent  Moonwalk.  The world
seemed momentarily stunned by emotion.  Only the spacemen   appeared unmoved.  From Houston,
the space controller checked out:  "You got a bunch of guys who're about to turn blue."  Eloquent
words  which spoke for the whole world.
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EAGLE
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Within a few minutes of touchdown came Man's first descriptions from the lunar surface --- and the
world, still stunned into disbelief, at last knew it was for real.  First Armstrong, coolly clinical: "It
seems to be a relatively level plain with a fairly large number of craters of the five to 50ft variety and
some ridges, most small but some 20 to 60 feet high and literally thousands of little ones and two
foot craters around the area.  We see some angular blocks several hundred feet in front of us that
are perhaps two feet in size and have angular edges."  Then Aldrin: "It looks like a collection of
every variety of shape, angularity, granularity, a collection of just about every kind of rock."  
And it was Aldrin, an elder and lay-preacher at the Presbyterian Church in the space centre
community near Houston, who told the control: "I'd just like to ask everyone around the world
who might be listening to pause and consider the events of the past few hours.  I'd like everyone to
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contemplate these events, each in his own way."
The flight schedule called for them to sleep, but that was asking the impossible.  They wanted to
go outside and walk on the Moon.  Inevitably, Moonwalk was brought forward --- by over three
hours.  And it was 3:56am on Monday, July 21 that Neil Armstrong stepped gingerly out from the
lunar module, making Man's first physical contact with the Moon and fulfilling a boyhood
prediction that "Someday I'm going to be up there, I'm going to be on that Moon." 
"Someday" had come for the kid from Ohio and he recognised the magnitude of the moment.  As
America's new frontiersman planted his foot firmly on the lunar surface, he said "That's one small
step for man ... but one giant leap for Mankind". 
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                                                            Armstrong, who knew the world would be watching and listening as
                                                            he walked into history, could be forgiven for scripting his words on
                                                            the lunar surface.  Twenty minutes later he was joined by Aldrin and
                                             together they walked hand-in-hand with all Mankind, the miracle of
communications enabling us all to share the historic adventure.  Aldrin proved the more
descriptive of the two Moon walkers.  He surveyed the eerie scene and declared: "Beautiful,
beautiful, beautiful ... a magnificent desolation."  The world shared his awe.
                               The moon surface was fine and powdery.  "Pick it up loosely and it acts like
                               dough," said Armstrong.  And  it had many colours, not  distorted  by the
                                         'Moonglow' we see from Earth.  They found no difficulty moving around under
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"ONE SMALL
STEP FOR MAN
... ONE GIANT
LEAP FOR
MANKIND"
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one-sixth Earth's gravity.  After Armstrong's 'giant leap' came Aldrin's 'kangaroo hop' as he
demonstrated the best way to take a lunar stroll.  And it was Aldrin again who showed the world
how a Moon rock bounces like a rubber ball.  Then came perhaps the most poignant moment as
they unveiled the commemorative plaque to mark the place where Man had made his first visit to
the Moon.  The plaque showed the two hemispheres of the Earth, and underneath the words: "Here
men from the Planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon, July 1969 A.D.  We came is peace for all
                                            Mankind."  It bore the signatures of the three crew members and the President
                                            of the United States.  President Nixon was right when he told the astronauts,
                                         in his  phone call from the white  house:  "For one priceless moment  in the
                                 whole history of Man, all the people of this Earth are truly one: one in their
                                            pride in what you have done, and in our prayers that you will return safely to
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                                        Earth."  Armstrong replied:  "It is a great honour and privilege for us to be here,
                                   representing  not only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, men
                                        with interest and the curiosity of man's exploration of the future."
                                        Then, after collecting their lunar samples, the dust and rocks which would give
the answers to questions Man has asked for thousands of years, they returned to the lunar module,
tired men after an unforgettable day.  At 6:45pm on Monday evening, after 21 hours on the Moon,
Armstrong and Aldrin blasted away in their lunar module.  It was yet another 'first'.  Never before
had a rocket lifted anything from the Moon's surface, let alone a fully-loaded spacecraft.
When the astronauts pushed their firing button everything went according to plan.  The Eagle,
           
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leaving its spidery legs behind, soared away.  Man left the Moon as he had arrived --- riding a
column of flame.  "Beautiful.  Very smooth.  Beautiful", Aldrin called out.  There was a note of relief
in his voice.  If the rocket had failed they would have been marooned on the dead planet with no
hope of rescue.
Waiting for them above was Michael Collins, who had to orbit alone in the Apollo command ship
while history was being made beneath him.  There was one anxious moment when Eagle docked
with Columbia --- a jerking movement which alarmed the astronauts.  "That was a funny one", said
Collins.  "You know I didn't feel us touch.  And I thought things were pretty steady.  I went to
retract there and that's when all hell broke loose."  But fate couldn't cheat them then, not with so
much achieved.  Link-up was successful --- if a little bumpy.
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Early on Tuesday, July 22, the lunar module was jettisoned.  Then, behind the Moon, the three
astronauts fired their spaceship's engine to blast out of lunar orbit.  And the journey home began. 
Behind them they left a Moon littered with their back packs, a television transmitting aerial, the
Stars and Stripes, a lunar earthquake detector, a laser reflector, the descent stage of the lunar
module, and the plaque marking man's first landing on another celestial body. 
Ahead of them was journey's end --- the good Earth.  Which was where the story began.
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THE LUNAR MODULE
The lunar module is the two-stage vehicle designed for space operations near and on the Moon.  It
is incapable of re-entering the atmosphere.  It is made of two halves, together standing at 22 feet
11 inches high and is 31 feet wide.  Joined by four explosive bolts and umbilicals, the ascent and
descent, or upper and lower, stages of the lunar module operate as a unit until staging --- when the
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ascent stage functions as a
single spacecraft for rendezvous
and docking with the command
and service module.  The ascent
stage, which housed Armstrong
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and Aldrin, is made up of three main sections; the crew compartment, mid-section and aft
equipment bay.
This stage has six sub-structural areas: crew compartment, mid-section, aft equipment bay,
thrust chamber assembly cluster supports, antenna supports and thermal and micro-meteoroid
shield.  Only the crew compartment and midsection are pressurized as part of the lunar module
cabin.  
The descent stage consists of a load-carrying structure of two pairs of parallel beams, upper
and lower decks and enclosure bulkheads --- all of conventional aluminium alloy.  The centre
compartment houses the descent engine; and descent propellant tanks are housed in the four
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square bays around the engine.
The descent stage measures 10 feet 7 inches high by 14 feet 1 inch in diameter.  Four-legged
truss outriggers mounted on the ends of each pair of beams serve as 'knees' for the landing gear
main struts.  The lunar module's electrical power system consists of six silver zinc primary
batteries, four in the descent stage and two in the ascent stage.  The environmental control
system consists of the atmosphere revitalisation section, oxygen supply, and cabin pressure
control section, water management, heat transport section and outlets for oxygen and water
servicing of the portable life support system.
The communications system is made up of transmitter - receivers, two VHF transmitter -
receivers,  a signal processing assembly and associated spacecraft antenna.  The guidance,
           
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                                   navigation and control system has six sections: primary guidance and
                                    navigation  section, control  electronics  section and  orbital  rate drive
                                                electronics for Apollo and lunar module.
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The Lunar Logbook
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PICTURE 1
(read text)
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PICTURE 3
(read text)
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JULY 16
2:32pm:
 TAKE OFF FROM CAPE KENNEDY (SEE PICTURE 1).
 5:16pm:
 OUT OF ORBIT.
                SPEED 24,545 mph (SEE PICTURE 2)
JULY 20 
6:47pm:
 MODULES UNHITCH FOR LANDING BID. 
9:17pm:
 TOUCH DOWN IN SEA OF
                TRANQUILLITY
JULY 21 
3:56am:
 ARMSTRONG STEPS ON TO MOON'S SURFACE. 
6:54pm:
 ASTRONAUTS TAKE OFF
                FROM MOON IN EAGLE. 
10:35pm: 
EAGLE DOCKS WITH COMMAND MODULE
JULY 22 
5:57am: 
BLAST OUT OF LUNAR ORBIT EARTH-BOUND
JULY 24 
5:50pm: 
SPLASHDOWN. THE ASTRONAUTS' CAPSULE SPLASHED INTO THE PACIFIC...IT
                LANDED UPSIDE DOWN IN 5FT-HIGH WAVES. FIVE 
                AGONISING MINUTES PASSED BEFORE IT WAS RIGHTED
                BY ITS INFLATABLE BAGS. TIME SINCE TAKE OFF:
                8 DAYS, 3 HOURS, 18 MINUTES. (SEE PICTURE 3)
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